Environmental Injustice: Hydropower Dams in Sikkim

The views of the Teesta River and the huge hydropower dam construction along the 2.5-hour drive from Kalimpong to Gangtok were distressing. This was in 2008 when hydropower dams were built near Teesta Bazar.  Fast forward to 2018, I find myself sitting in a graduate class in New York City, 7,000 miles from Northeast India, taking a course in Environmental Justice. The professor’s first question to the class was, “What does Environmental (in)justice mean to you?” We go around the class, and I quickly try to think of something and blurt out, “Three Gorges Dam in China which has displaced millions of people.” Pretty impressed with myself, I sigh, and start jogging my blurred memory of hydropower dams on the Teesta River.

The state of Sikkim has followed India’s Himalayan states’ trend to develop large-scale hydropower projects in the name of economic growth and development.

The Teesta River is one of the many rivers in the Himalayan region which originates in the mountains of the northern part of Indian state of Sikkim, flowing length of 393 km (245 miles) through Sikkim into West Bengal before entering Bangladesh. The mountains of the Hindu-Kush-Himalaya (HKH) region is the source of ten major river basins including the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and the Mekong, and source of food system for more than three billion people who live on its river basins[i]. Unfortunately, over the past several decades rampant large-scale infrastructure development projects, like the hydropower dams or hydroelectric projects have destroyed these Himalayan rivers and disrupted the well-being of the mountain and river communities.

To resist destructive hydropower projects, local people’s movement like Narmada Bachao Andolan has mobilized against two of the largest proposed dams in India, namely Sardar Sarovar and Narmada Sagar[ii]. Their resistance is rooted in highlighting injustices from the displacement of millions of people impacted by the construction of these large-scale dams. More recently in India’s Himalayan state of Arunachal Pradesh, Etalin hydroelectric project in Dibang Valley, have drawn attention due to its adverse impacts on wildlife and indigenous communities[iii]. Local indigenous communities, like the Idu Mishmi community, are fighting against the Etalin hydropower dams to claim their right to ancestral land, identity, and culture[iv]. Similarly, in Nepal, Sunkoshi-2 Hydropower Project has met with resistance from Indigenous Majhi communities who are demanding cancellation of the project[v]. The indigenous community is fighting for their existence because the proposed hydropower project will displace their communities and destroy their identity, cultural and religious sites. 

The state of Sikkim has followed India’s Himalayan states’ trend to develop large-scale hydropower projects in the name of economic growth and development. However, the construction of these dams and hydropower projects has not been without resistance of the people in the region. While researching anti-dam resistance in the Himalayas, I found several articles that highlighted anti-dam protests in Sikkim and began to learn about Sikkim’s grassroots resistance. Sikkim modeled grassroots resistance movement against dam-building or anti-dam movements which had led to the cancellation of multiple projects in the region^[vi]. (The successful anti-dam movement and ongoing resistance can be found in the article Making of a Sacred Land and its Guardians.)

As my interest in the resistance movement grew, I started reaching out to as many advocates that I could connect through online research; one of the first interviewees being Gyatso Lepcha, the General Secretary of Affected Citizens of Teesta (ACT). Gyatso Lepcha, a lawyer by training, is fighting against the hydropower dams in Sikkim. He is from the Lepcha community, one of the many indigenous mountain communities in Sikkim with cultural and spiritual ties to nature which play critical part in shaping their identity and wellbeing. (The cultural beliefs and mythology of the Teesta River is well documented in the article The Story of Teesta and Rangeet.)

“Who decides that hydropower dams are green energy?...."

After navigating time difference of 9 hour 30 minutes, I landed on a zoom video conference meeting with Gyatso Lepcha. I introduced myself and my research interest which was discrediting large-scale hydropower dams. Hydropower dams are projected as a solution to climate change and as a green, sustainable source of energy on global platforms and international agencies like the United Nations. Lepcha’s first response was, “Who decides that hydropower dams are green energy? The projects are decided without proper participation of the community even when there is a clear environmental violation and social destruction from dam-building activities.”

His reaction is reasonable because hydropower dams are neither a source of green energy nor are they environmentally friendly. Hydropower dams produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) that contributes to climate change. It is produced from rotting vegetation that collects at the bottom of the reservoir^[vii]. Therefore, for a carbon reduction advocate whose sole priority may be to lessen carbon emissions, hydropower dams may not seem as disastrous as fossil fuels, but it negates the purpose of climate mitigation.

In another conversation, a rights activist, Souparna Lahiri^[viii] scored even with Gyatso Lepcha’s fight against large-scale projects like the hydropower dams by highlighting how at the crux of these projects lies the destruction and/or alteration of indigenous communities' way of life. Lahiri stated, “Why are indigenous people at the forefront of resisting the onslaughts? It is because they know that once they allow capital to enter their territories, it will first target their cultures, their whole consensus building systems, and then the property rights system which will totally break open the indigenous territories and indigenous people into deep divisions. This is what capitalist systems do.” His response highlighted the importance of resistance built on the idea of sovereignty, and not simply limiting possibilities to cost benefit analysis and ecosystem services drafted in memorandums and project reports. As someone who constantly struggles with comprehending and connecting capitalism and liberal institutions to a layperson, it was interesting to hear him lay out such a complex concept with such clarity.

 Climate Change and Hydropower dams in Sikkim

Climate change is the result of the industrial revolution, primarily the use of fossil fuels (use of coal or gas) which led to the production of carbon emissions. As a solution to transition away from the reliance on fossil fuels, global companies and institutions for decades have pushed for building large-scale hydroelectric projects (HEPs) or hydropower dams as an environmentally friendly solution with no carbon emissions.

Hydropower dams or HEPs are no solutions. Financial loss from large-scale hydro-dams further show that they are economically and environmentally unsustainable. They are economically unsustainable for many reasons like the rise in solar energy as an alternative and the financial risks from long-term projects. However, one of the key risk factors, which is ignored by project planners, is the impact of climate change that will result in inconsistent and uncontrolled flow of rivers. The high rates of flooding create disruptions to the physical infrastructures like the reservoirs built to support large-scale hydroelectric dams. The impacts of climate change are immediate in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas which are young and more susceptible to earthquakes. Floods are common in Sikkim. Earthquakes and landslides, and weather is dominated by heavy monsoon and disastrous landslides in the valley. In June 2019 the cloudburst, which usually causes rain, thunder, and lightning, sent alerts around Teesta III Hydro Power Project and water was released by Chungthang dam causing anxiety and fear among residents^[ix]. These events will only worsen with climate change. Damage to the physical infrastructures means a financial loss to the companies and investments by the local government and other financial institutions.   

The impact of climate change on the global scale is still being debated on national platforms. The scientific communities publish reports year after year to raise urgency to the issue. Unfortunately, there is a disconnect between science, policy, and the public. When I raised the question of climate change with the interviewees, the sense of fear was palpable during the monsoon season, with the occurrence of landslides and heavy flooding. The vulnerability of the land is worsened by the construction of transmission lines built across valleys to export electricity generated by hydroelectric dams to far off urban centers. This significantly disrupts landscapes and puts communities at further risk.

Large-scale hydro-dam infrastructures require extensive labour, materials, and land. It requires large-scale deforestation near the project site. Once the site is cleared, floods and landslides also increase.   

  The Role of International Frameworks and Financial Institutions

Large-scale hydropower dam projects require huge financial investments and political support from the local governments. Along with foreign and local financial investments, the international agenda for energy policies and frameworks set by global companies and institutions drive these large-scale hydropower dams for economic growth. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty with goals to reduce carbon emissions to curb climate change. Under this treaty hydropower dams, framed as a green sustainable source of energy, were listed as a mechanism to meet the climate goals allowing financing instruments like Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to develop Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) credits. This framework assured potential financial gains and a safety net for investments towards building large-scale hydropower dams. Under CDM, destructive hydropower projects have received carbon credits to standardize and validate building additional projects in the Himalayan region. Countries that border the Himalayas, like India and China have previously received some of the highest CERs in the Himalayan region as seen above in Figure 1. However, what cannot be easily quantified are the socioeconomic impacts, the escalation of environmental and cultural violations that are often neglected in systems of technocratic bureaucracy like the Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) reports.

CDM defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment to implement a carbon emission-reduction project in developing countries. On the other hand, projects certified as carbon emission-reduction projects in developing countries can earn certified emission reduction credits. Figure 2 visually captures this trading scheme. These sale-able credits can be used by industrialized countries to meet a part of their emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol. For the past two decades large-scale hydropower dam projects have gained significant CER credits under the CDM scheme. In India, and many other developing countries, hydropower dam projects are seen as a source of clean green energy. They have been promoted by the central and state governments as a win-win situation because they are projected as an economical source of energy unaffected by fluctuating fuel prices, and as a renewable source of electricity, but without taking into consideration other social, cultural, and environmental concerns.

 Problems with Large-scale hydropower dams in Sikkim

Climate change has significantly impacted the local farming communities that bear the burden of unpredictable weather patterns that alter harvesting cycles.

A key step in hydropower dam construction is a huge diversion of free-flowing rivers. It destabilizes hydrology of the river impacting aquatic life as well. In a conversation with Prava Rai, the editor of “Sikkim: The Reinvention of Identities and Cultures”, she expressed her discontentment with the hydro-dams, “the heavy-duty use of machinery, blasting and the relentless interference and destruction of the land is suicida to put it mildly.” Binay Lingden Limboo, also from Sikkim, observed that Teesta River is not the same due to dust and construction from projects, and that the aesthetics of the river valley view is marred. He also said that “local farming activities like orange farms in the region are negatively impacted because of the construction, and the loss of local economic activities has led to youth migration.”

Climate change has significantly impacted the local farming communities that bear the burden of unpredictable weather patterns that alter harvesting cycles. Simultaneously, higher rates of flooding due to change in hydrology of Himalayan rivers from melting glaciers due to warmer global temperature result in landslides and soil erosion. These have led to poor harvests and farmers are at higher risk of economic and ecological collapse.

In a similar context, Lahiri stated that, “…dams have impacted tourism from water sports in the Teesta River because dam reservoirs control the flow of water. The variability in the level of water in the river, in turn results in loss of revenue for local rafting companies.” Both these insights highlight the loss of local economic opportunities.  

Praveen Chettri is a photographer based out of Kalimpong, and a member of The Confluence Collective, a collective of photographers and researchers. His maternal village lies in the Dzongu region. Some members of his family are at the frontline advocating against hydropower dams. Over the last years, he said, the hydropower dam development projects have brought changes. He elaborated on instances of growing divide in the community. “Some oppose the dams, while some advocate dams in the region. The growing divide has created a rift and an unfamiliar distance in relationships among peers, family, and village members.” In the face of the climate crisis, fragmented communities worsen the overall physical and social well-being of the community.

Resisting Hydropower dam Developments

Public participation, awareness and mobilization of youth groups, cultural and ethnic groups, local committees, environmental groups, and local economic development groups will allow for a more inclusive forum and active engagement.

Every now and then there are multiple reports and scientific research published framing the Himalayan Rivers as a potential to unlock economic growth. However, the numbers that are put forth should be analyzed in terms of feasibility of the projects, and not on the potential of the project which may seem very promising to financially vested speculators[x]. In addition, it is of utmost importance for project planners, locals, and the government to comprehend that a hydropower dam built in one section of a river impacts the entire region, mostly the downstream communities living along the river. Therefore, hydropower dams proposed in the name of development should be analyzed anticipating long-term impacts on local communities’ social, cultural, and economic well-being.

Economic development is a priority for most governments. Therefore, economic opportunities which tend to be more sustainable while empowering local communities can be prioritized over unfeasible large-scale hydropower dams. However, as a last resort, if local authorities plan to take on these large-scale hydropower projects, public participation is of utmost importance and should be built in as a central component to the proposal. Technical reports like Cost-benefit Analysis (CBA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Reports, and request for public comments and consultations are likely to be exclusive to certain groups, primarily vesting interest in economic development. Since the reports by default are based on technical aspects of the project, they tend to give less priority to qualitative aspects like the cultural and ecological significance which are of critical importance to local communities. Public participation, awareness and mobilization of youth groups, cultural and ethnic groups, local committees, environmental groups, and local economic development groups will allow for a more inclusive forum and active engagement.

By highlighting the disparity between the technical reports and most impacted communities, Sikkim’s anti-dam movements over the years have centralized cultural and indigenous-led resistance for self-determination. The result of grassroots local organizing against the rampant destruction of land and water have successfully urged international financial institutions to take some measures. In response to human rights violations, the World Commission on Dams, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and International Monetary Fund have added a component to establish guardrails to address social, cultural, and environmental impact. Local resistance against dams in Sikkim has also resulted in partnerships with international environmental organizations like the International Rivers bringing attention to local issues and activists who are fighting for their sovereignty[xi]. These local voices are critical in highlighting environmental (in)justice[xii] from hydropower dams in the Himalayas.

While resistance against large-scale development projects like hydropower dams is crucial to stop new developments, it is equally critical to understand that mountain communities are frontline communities which means they are at a higher risk when it comes to impacts of climate change. Collaborative efforts to advocate for Himalayan Mountain communities, at a regional and international platform, against large-scale hydrodams is crucial to stop further developments of hydropower dams which are falsely proposed as a climate mitigation effort to combat climate change. Therefore, in addition to fighting for sovereignty, building local capacity to proactively advocate for the most impacted communities that are facing the brunt of climate change will be a critical step to sustaining the diverse communities of Sikkim.

[i] Wester, Philippus & Mishra, Arabinda & Mukherji, Aditi & Shrestha, Arun. (2019). The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People. 10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1.

[ii] “Narmada Bachao Andolan / Medha Patkar, Baba Amte.” Right Livelihood, 9 Mar. 2022, https://rightlivelihood.org/the-change-makers/find-a-laureate/medha-patkar-and-baba-amte-narmada-bachao-andolan/.

[iii] Pardikar, Rishika. “Best of 2020: Himalayan Dams Become Economic Burdens.” The Third Pole, 24 Mar. 2021, https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/energy/best-of-2020-himalayan-dams-become-economic-burdens/.

[iv] Joy, K. J., et al. “The Dibang Multipurpose Project.” Water Conflicts in Northeast India, Taylor and Francis, Milton, 2017.

[v] “Nepal's Indigenous Majhi Communities Demand Cancellation of Sunkoshi-2 Hydropower Project.” Community Empowerment and Social Justice (CEmSoJ) Network, 10 Oct. 2021, https://cemsoj.wordpress.com/2021/10/06/nepals-indigenous-majhi-communities-demand-cancellation-of-sunkoshi-2-hydropower-project/.

^[vi] Dukpa, Rinchu D., Deepa Joshi, and Rutgerd Boelens. 2019. "Contesting Hydropower Dams in the Eastern Himalaya: The Cultural Politics of Identity, Territory and Self-Governance Institutions in Sikkim, India" Water 11, no. 3: 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030412

^[vii] Hurtado, María Elena. “Dams Raise Global Warming Gas.” SciDev.Net, 7 Nov. 2016, https://www.scidev.net/global/news/dams-raise-global-warming-gas/. 

^[viii] Souparna Lahiri is a Rights Activist and Climate Policy Advisor for All India Forum of Forest Movements and Global Forest Coalition. He was one of the interviewees for the capstone project in September-November 2020.

^[ix] Ongmu, Dichen. “Sikkim Cloudburst: 427 Tourists Safely Evacuated from Lachen.” EastMojo, 10 June 2021, https://www.eastmojo.com/sikkim/2019/06/22/sikkim-cloudburst-427-tourists-safely-evacuated-from-lachen/.  

[x] Dharmadhikary, Shripad. “Mountains of Concrete: Dam Building in the Himalayas.” Mountains of Concrete: Dam Buiding in the Himalayas, International Rivers, Dec. 2008, https://archive.internationalrivers.org/resources/mountains-of-concrete-dam-building-in-the-himalayas-3582#:~:text=Mountains%20of%20Concrete%20by%20Shripad,people%2C%20ecosystems%2C%20and%20economy. 

[xi] DSouza, Ayesha, and Melanie Scaife. “Speaking up for a Silenced River.” International Rivers, International Rivers, 13 Nov. 2020, https://www.internationalrivers.org/news/speaking-up-for-a-silenced-river/. 

[xii] Environmental justice is a social movement to address the unfair exposure of poor and marginalized communities to harms associated with resource extraction, hazardous waste, and other land us.